Insight philosophy (article 1) : METAPHYSICS

Making Sense of Ultimate Reality

Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of reality. Meta-physicians ask fundamental questions about existence, substance, causation and the ultimate nature of the world and universe.  

Some of the basic concepts studied in metaphysics include:

• Being: The study of the nature of existence itself.  What does it mean for something to "be"?

• Substance: The analysis of what constitutes the fundamental building blocks of reality. Is substance material, spiritual or abstract?

• Causation: The study of how events cause other events and the universal principles that govern causation.

• Time and Space: The nature of time and space and their relation to substance and being. Are they absolute or relative?

• Mind and Matter: The relationship between consciousness and the physical world. Are they fundamentally different?

    Over the centuries, philosophers have proposed diverse metaphysical theories. Aristotle believed the world is made of four causes and matter. Descartes posited a mind-body dualism and substance dualism. Kant restricted metaphysics but proposed God, soul and free will as postulates. For many ancient and medieval philosophers, metaphysics provided insights into the divine realm, theology and ultimate purposes. Modern meta-physicians take a more scientific and conceptual approach. Since metaphysical questions deal with the fundamental nature of reality, they are difficult to resolve conclusively through reason or evidence alone. But major viewpoints reveal different possibilities  for making sense of the world and universe we inhabit. The inquiry of meta-physicians aims at conceptual clarity and systematic thought about the most basic questions, even if ultimate answers remain elusive. Their efforts highlight how we construct and understand  ultimate reality through reason, experience and imagination.

Here are some philosophers and their thoughts on metaphysics :

1. Aristotle - "Metaphysics is the science that investigates being as being and the attributes which belong to this in virtue of its own nature." 

2. Plato - "The object of knowledge is eternally existent."

3. Augustine - "If there are no such things as form, or species, or order, then there is no such thing as the universe; but there is a universe."

4. Aquinas - "Metaphysics considers being first of all both in respect of what is common to all beings and in respect of what is proper to certain special beings."   

5. Descartes - "I think, therefore I am."      

6. Leibniz - "There is nothing without a reason. That is to say that nothing happens without it being possible for one who has enough knowledge of things to give a reason sufficient to determine why it is so and not otherwise."

7. Hume - "If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames."   

8. Kant - "There will never be a Newton for the blade of grass."

9. Hegel- "The True is the whole."      

10. Schopenhauer - “Metaphysics signifies originally nothing more than an investigation whose object is not physical nature but that which is beyond the physical and the real.”   

11. Nietzsche - "There are no facts, only interpretations."

12. Wittgenstein - "The limit of language is shown by its being impossible to describe the fact which corresponds to (is the translation of) a sentence, without simply repeating the sentence."

13. Heidegger - "Language is the house of Being. In its home man dwells."

14. Russell - "The problems of philosophy arise through the fact that we wish to understand the world in which we live, and that we strive, not in a haphazard way, but though correlated work based upon experience and inference."   

15. Sartre - "Existence precedes and rules essence."  

16. Freud - "Reality is a presumption which we have not really examined."  

17. Einstein - "Philosophy is like a math that catches. It all starts with definitions, and definitions are always to some extent arbitrary."

18. Searle - "Metaphysics turns out to be nothing more than some questions that arise about the application of concepts."

19. Deleuze - "It is not being that is the veritable subject of metaphysics, but only the determination of Being."

20. Derrida - "There is no getting out of metaphysics."

INDIAN THOUGHT AND METAPHYSICS

The foundations of Indian philosophical thought were laid in the Vedic texts, composed around 1500 BC. The Vedas contain hymns, mantras and cosmological theories, expressing an early interest in metaphysical questions. The Upanishads, compiled between 900 and 500 BC, mark the beginnings of Indian metaphysical speculation. They revolve around the concepts of Brahman, Ātman and Māyā (illusion).  

For the Upanishads, the supreme reality is Brahman, the infinite, eternal, unchanging Absolute. Brahman is described as neti-neti - "not this, not that" - indicating it transcends all concepts and qualities. Brahman is the source and ground of all existence and phenomena.   

Ātman  refers to the self or soul within human beings. A central insight of the Upanishads is tat tvam asi - "thou art that". It refers to the realization that the self (Ātman) within is identical to the Brahman without. This non-duality between self and Brahman is the spiritual goal.

The phenomenal world is seen as māyā - an illusion that hides the nondual truth. Maya refers to the false appearance of the world as separate from Brahman. In reality, all individual beings and things are simply manifestations or modifications (Vikriti) of the one unchanging Brahman. 

The concepts of samsāra, karma and dharma also feature prominently. Samsāra refers to the cycle of birth, death and rebirth, governed by karma or the law of cause and effect. Actions performed by individuals bear fruit in future lives, perpetuating rebirth within samsāra.  

Spiritual liberation - moksha - involves escaping from samsāra through realizing the nonduality of  Ātman and Brahman. This requires renouncing egoism and desire.  

The Upanishads inspired several orthodox schools of Indian philosophy which systematized metaphysical thought. Schools like Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta adopted a nondualist stance, seeing moksha as union with the unchanging Brahman beyond the illusory world.   

Later schools like Nyaya, Vaisesika and Mimamsa propounded pluralistic and realist perspectives. But all Indian philosophies took up key concepts from the Upanishadic worldview - Brahamn,  Ātman, māyā, samsāra and dharma - which characterized their metaphysical and spiritual orientation.

In summary, the Upanishads laid the foundation for ancient Indian metaphysics through their concepts of an ultimate spiritual reality (Brahman), the illusory nature of the world (māyā), the liberating insight of nonduality(Ātman-Brahman identity),  and the cyclical nature of  existence (samsāra). This had a profound and lasting influence on later thinkers and traditions.

I hope these overviews have provided some basic insights into the nature and scope of metaphysical inquiry, as well as the fundamental perspectives of ancient Indian thought in this realm. Metaphysics explores some of the most abstract yet consequential questions about reality, knowledge and existence.  The views of philosophers and traditions reveals a diversity of possible ways of understanding ultimate reality. While metaphysical theories can seem speculative and difficult to prove, they can provide valuable frameworks for making sense of our lives and the universe we inhabit. The thought-provoking notions of thinkers from different cultures also reveal shared human interests in grappling with life's biggest mysteries. As with most philosophical subjects, metaphysics does not offer definitive answers but promises to enrich our perspectives and expand our horizons through an examination of ideas on the very edge of what can be known. I encourage you to continue exploring these fascinating issues with an open yet rigorous mind, and see where they may lead your own thinking.

I hope you like it...,

Akhilajnya.